Contents in Brief
1 Introduction to Genetics 1
2 Chromosomes and Cellular Reproduction 15
3 Basic Principles of Heredity 43
4 Sex Determination and Sex-Linked Characteristics 73
5 Extensions and Modifications of Basic Principles 99
6 Pedigree Analysis, Applications, and Genetic Testing 135
7 Linkage, Recombination, and Eukaryotic Gene Mapping 161
8 Bacterial and Viral Genetic Systems 203
9 Chromosome Variation 239
10 DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 271
11 Chromosome Structure and Transposable Elements 291
12 DNA Replication and Recombination 321
13 Transcription 351
14 RNA Molecules and RNA Processing 375
15 The Genetic Code and Translation 401
16 Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes 431
17 Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes 459
18 Gene Mutations and DNA Repair 481
19 Molecular Genetic Analysis and Biotechnology 513
20 Genomics and Proteomics 557
21 Organelle DNA 591
22 Developmental Genetics and Immunogenetics 611
23 Cancer Genetics 637
24 Quantitative Genetics 659
25 Population Genetics 693
26 Evolutionary Genetics 721
Reference Guide to Model Genetic Organisms A1
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v
Letter from the Author xv
Preface xvi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Genetics 1
ALBINISM IN THE HOPIS 1
1.1 Genetics Is Important to Us Individually, to Society,
and to the Study of Biology 2
The Role of Genetics in Biology 4
Genetic Diversity and Evolution 4
Divisions of Genetics 5
Model Genetic Organisms 5
1.2 Humans Have Been Using Genetics for Thousands
of Years 7
The Early Use and Understanding of Heredity 7
The Rise of the Science of Genetics 9
The Future of Genetics 10
1.3 A Few Fundamental Concepts Are Important for
the Start of Our Journey into Genetics 11
Chapter 2 Chromosomes and
Cellular Reproduction 15
THE BLIND MEN’S RIDDLE 15
2.1 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Differ in a
Number of Genetic Characteristics 17
2.2 Cell Reproduction Requires the Copying of the
Genetic Material, Separation of the Copies, and
Cell Division 18
Prokaryotic Cell Reproduction 18
Eukaryotic Cell Reproduction 18
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis 21
Genetic Consequences of the Cell Cycle 24
Connecting Concepts: Counting Chromosomes and DNA
Molecules 25
2.3 Sexual Reproduction Produces Genetic Variation
Through the Process of Meiosis 25
Meiosis 26
Sources of Genetic Variation in Meiosis 29
Connecting Concepts: Mitosis and Meiosis Compared 31
The Separation of Sister Chromatids and Homologous
Chromosomes 31
Meiosis in the Life Cycles of Animals and Plants 33
Chapter 3 Basic Principles
of Heredity 43
THE GENETICS OF RED HAIR 43
3.1 Gregor Mendel Discovered the Basic Principles
of Heredity 44
Mendel’s Success 45
Genetic Terminology 46
3.2 Monohybrid Crosses Reveal the Principle of
Segregation and the Concept of Dominance 47
What Monohybrid Crosses Reveal 48
Connecting Concepts: Relating Genetic Crosses to Meiosis 49
Predicting the Outcomes of Genetic Crosses 51
The Testcross 55
Genetic Symbols 55
Connecting Concepts: Ratios in Simple Crosses 55
3.3 Dihybrid Crosses Reveal the Principle
of Independent Assortment 56
Dihybrid Crosses 56
The Principle of Independent Assortment 56
Relating the Principle of Independent
Assortment to Meiosis 57
Applying Probability and the Branch Diagram
to Dihybrid Crosses 57
The Dihybrid Testcross 59
3.4 Observed Ratios of Progeny May Deviate from
Expected Ratios by Chance 61
The Goodness-of-Fit Chi-Square Test 61
Chapter 4 Sex Determination and
Sex-Linked Characteristics 73
THE STRANGE CASE OF PLATYPUS SEX 73
4.1 Sex Is Determined by a Number of Different
Mechanisms 74
Chromosomal Sex-Determining Systems 75
Genic Sex Determination 77
Contents
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Contents
Environmental Sex Determination 77
Sex Determination in Drosophila melanogaster 78
Sex Determination in Humans 79
4.2 Sex-Linked Characteristics Are Determined
by Genes on the Sex Chromosomes 81
X-Linked White Eyes in Drosophila 81
Nondisjunction and the Chromosome Theory
of Inheritance 82
X-Linked Color Blindness in Humans 84
Symbols for X-Linked Genes 85
Z-Linked Characteristics 85
Y-Linked Characteristics 86
Connecting Concepts: Recognizing Sex-Linked
Inheritance 88
4.3 Dosage Compensation Equalizes the Amount of
Protein Produced by X-Linked Genes in Males
and Females 88
Lyon Hypothesis 89
Mechanism of Random X Inactivation 90
Dosage Imbalance Between X-Linked Genes
and Autosomal Genes 90
Chapter 5 Extensions and Modifications
of Basic Principles 99
CUÉNOT’S ODD YELLOW MICE 99
5.1 Additional Factors at a Single Locus Can Affect
the Results of Genetic Crosses 100
Types of Dominance 100
Penetrance and Expressivity 103
Lethal Alleles 103
Multiple Alleles 104
5.2 Gene Interaction Takes Place When Genes at
Multiple Loci Determine a Single Phenotype 106
Gene Interaction That Produces Novel Phenotypes 106
Gene Interaction with Epistasis 107
Connecting Concepts: Interpreting Ratios Produced
by Gene Interaction 111
Complementation: Determining Whether Mutations Are
at the Same Locus or at Different Loci 113
The Complex Genetics of Coat Color in Dogs 113
5.3 Sex Influences the Inheritance and Expression
of Genes in a Variety of Ways 115
Sex-Influenced and Sex-Limited Characteristics 115
Cytoplasmic Inheritance 117
Genetic Maternal Effect 119
Genomic Imprinting 120
5.4 Anticipation Is the Stronger or Earlier Expression
of Traits in Succeeding Generations 122
5.5 The Expression of a Genotype May Be Affected
by Environmental Effects 123
Environmental Effects on the Phenotype 123
The Inheritance of Continuous Characteristics 124
Chapter 6 Pedigree Analysis, Applications,
and Genetic Testing 135
HUTCHINSON–GILFORD SYNDROME
AND THE SECRET OF AGING 135
6.1 The Study of Genetics in Humans Is
Constrained by Special Features of Human
Biology and Culture 136
6.2 Geneticists Often Use Pedigrees to
Study the Inheritance of Characteristics
in Humans 137
Symbols Used in Pedigrees 137
Analysis of Pedigrees 137
Autosomal Recessive Traits 138
Autosomal Dominant Traits 139
X-Linked Recessive Traits 139
X-Linked Dominant Traits 141
Y-Linked Traits 142
6.3 Studying Twins and Adoptions Can Help
Assess the Importance of Genes and
Environment 143
Types of Twins 143
Concordance in Twins 144
A Twin Study of Asthma 145
Adoption Studies 146
6.4 Genetic Counseling and Genetic Testing Provide
Information to Those Concerned about Genetic
Diseases and Traits 146
Genetic Counseling 146
Genetic Testing 148
Interpreting Genetic Tests 152
Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing 153
Genetic Discrimination and Privacy 153
6.5 Comparison of Human and Chimpanzee Genomes
Is Helping to Reveal Genes That Make Humans
Unique 153
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Contents
Chapter 7 Linkage, Recombination, and
Eukaryotic Gene Mapping 161
LINKED GENES AND BALD HEADS 161
7.1 Linked Genes Do Not Assort Independently 162
7.2 Linked Genes Segregate Together and
Crossing Over Produces Recombination
Between Them 163
Notation for Crosses with Linkage 164
Complete Linkage Compared with Independent
Assortment 164
Crossing Over with Linked Genes 166
Calculating Recombination Frequency 167
Coupling and Repulsion 168
Connecting Concepts: Relating Independent Assortment,
Linkage, and Crossing Over 169
Evidence for the Physical Basis of Recombination 170
Predicting the Outcomes of Crosses with Linked Genes 171
Testing for Independent Assortment 172
Gene Mapping with Recombination Frequencies 174
Constructing a Genetic Map with the Use of Two-Point
Testcrosses 175
7.3 A Three-Point Testcross Can Be Used to Map
Three Linked Genes 176
Constructing a Genetic Map with the
Three-Point Testcross 177
Connecting Concepts: Stepping Through the
Three-Point Cross 182
Effect of Multiple Crossovers 184
Mapping Human Genes 185
Mapping with Molecular Markers 186
Locating Genes with Genomewide Association Studies 186
7.4 Physical-Mapping Methods Are Used to Determine
the Physical Positions of Genes on Particular
Chromosomes 187
Deletion Mapping 188
Somatic-Cell Hybridization 188
Physical Chromosome Mapping Through
Molecular Analysis 190
7.5 Recombination Rates Exhibit Extensive
Variation 191
Chapter 8 Bacterial and Viral
Genetic Systems 203
LIFE IN A BACTERIAL WORLD 203
8.1 Genetic Analysis of Bacteria Requires Special
Methods 204
Bacterial Diversity 204
Techniques for the Study of Bacteria 205
The Bacterial Genome 206
Plasmids 206
8.2 Bacteria Exchange Genes Through Conjugation,
Transformation, and Transduction 208
Conjugation 208
Natural Gene Transfer and Antibiotic Resistance 215
Transformation in Bacteria 216
Bacterial Genome Sequences 218
Horizontal Gene Transfer 218
8.3 Viruses Are Simple Replicating Systems Amenable
to Genetic Analysis 219
Techniques for the Study of Bacteriophages 219
Transduction: Using Phages to Map Bacterial Genes 220
Connecting Concepts: Three Methods for Mapping
Bacterial Genes 223
Gene Mapping in Phages 223
Fine-Structure Analysis of Bacteriophage Genes 224
RNA Viruses 227
Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS 227
Influenza Virus 229
Chapter 9 Chromosome Variation 239
TRISOMY 21 AND THE DOWN-SYNDROME CRITICAL
REGION 239
9.1 Chromosome Mutations Include Rearrangements,
Aneuploids, and Polyploids 240
Chromosome Morphology 240
Types of Chromosome Mutations 241
9.2 Chromosome Rearrangements Alter Chromosome
Structure 242
Duplications 242
Deletions 244
Inversions 246
Translocations 248
Fragile Sites 251
Copy-Number Variations 252
9.3 Aneuploidy Is an Increase or Decrease in the
Number of Individual Chromosomes 252
Types of Aneuploidy 252
Effects of Aneuploidy 252
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Aneuploidy in Humans 254
Uniparental Disomy 257
Mosaicism 257
9.4 Polyploidy Is the Presence of More than Two Sets
of Chromosomes 258
Autopolyploidy 258
Allopolyploidy 260
The Significance of Polyploidy 261
9.5 Chromosome Variation Plays an Important Role
in Evolution 262
Chapter 10 DNA: The Chemical Nature
of the Gene 271
NEANDERTHAL’S DNA 271
10.1 Genetic Material Possesses Several Key
Characteristics 272
10.2 All Genetic Information Is Encoded in the Structure
of DNA or RNA 272
Early Studies of DNA 272
DNA As the Source of Genetic Information 274
Watson and Crick’s Discovery of the Three-Dimensional
Structure of DNA 277
RNA As Genetic Material 278
10.3 DNA Consists of Two Complementary and
Antiparallel Nucleotide Strands That Form a
Double Helix 279
The Primary Structure of DNA 279
Secondary Structures of DNA 281
Connecting Concepts: Genetic Implications
of DNA Structure 284
10.4 Special Structures Can Form in DNA
and RNA 285
Chapter 11 Chromosome Structure and
Transposable Elements 291
JUMPING GENES IN ELONGATED TOMATOES 291
11.1 Large Amounts of DNA Are Packed
into a Cell 292
Supercoiling 292
The Bacterial Chromosome 293
Eukaryotic Chromosomes 293
Changes in Chromatin Structure 297
11.2 Eukaryotic Chromosomes Possess Centromeres
and Telomeres 299
Centromere Structure 299
Telomere Structure 300
Artificial Chromosomes 301
11.3 Eukaryotic DNA Contains Several Classes
of Sequence Variation 301
The Denaturation and Renaturation of DNA 301
Types of DNA Sequences in Eukaryotes 302
11.4 Transposable Elements Are DNA Sequences
Capable of Moving 303
General Characteristics of Transposable Elements 303
Transposition 303
The Mutagenic Effects of Transposition 306
The Regulation of Transposition 308
11.5 Different Types of Transposable Elements Have
Characteristic Structures 308
Transposable Elements in Bacteria 308
Transposable Elements in Eukaryotes 310
Connecting Concepts: Classes of Transposable Elements 314
11.6 Transposable Elements Have Played an Important
Role in Genome Evolution 314
The Evolution of Transposable Elements 314
Domestication of Transposable Elements 315
Chapter 12 DNA Replication and
Recombination 321
TOPOISOMERASE, REPLICATION, AND CANCER 321
12.1 Genetic Information Must Be Accurately Copied
Every Time a Cell Divides 322
12.2 All DNA Replication Takes Place in a
Semiconservative Manner 322
Meselson and Stahl’s Experiment 323
Modes of Replication 325
Requirements of Replication 328
Direction of Replication 329
Connecting Concepts: The Direction of Replication
in Different Models of Replication 329
12.3 Bacterial Replication Requires a Large Number
of Enzymes and Proteins 330
Initiation 330
Unwinding 330
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Contents
Elongation 332
Termination 335
The Fidelity of DNA Replication 335
Connecting Concepts: The Basic Rules
of Replication 336
12.4 Eukaryotic DNA Replication Is Similar to Bacterial
Replication but Differs in Several Aspects 336
Eukaryotic Origins 336
The Licensing of DNA Replication 337
Unwinding 337
Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases 337
Nucleosome Assembly 338
The Location of Replication Within the Nucleus 339
DNA Synthesis and the Cell Cycle 339
Replication at the Ends of Chromosomes 340
Replication in Archaea 342
12.5 Recombination Takes Place Through
the Breakage, Alignment, and Repair of DNA
Strands 342
Models of Recombination 343
Enzymes Required for Recombination 344
Gene Conversion 345
Chapter 13 Transcription 351
DEATH CAP POISONING 351
13.1 RNA, Consisting of a Single Strand of
Ribonucleotides, Participates in a Variety
of Cellular Functions 352
An Early RNA World 352
The Structure of RNA 352
Classes of RNA 353
13.2 Transcription Is the Synthesis of an RNA Molecule
from a DNA Template 354
The Template 355
The Substrate for Transcription 357
The Transcription Apparatus 357
13.3 The Process of Bacterial Transcription
Consists of Initiation, Elongation,
and Termination 359
Initiation 359
Elongation 361
Termination 362
Connecting Concepts: The Basic Rules
of Transcription 363
13.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Is Similar
to Bacterial Transcription but Has
Some Important Differences 364
Transcription and Nucleosome Structure 364
Promoters 364
Initiation 365
Elongation 367
Termination 367
13.5 Transcription in Archaea Is More Similar
to Transcription in Eukaryotes than to
Transcription in Eubacteria 368
Chapter 14 RNA Molecules and
RNA Processing 375
SEX THROUGH SPLICING 375
14.1 Many Genes Have Complex
Structures 376
Gene Organization 376
Introns 377
The Concept of the Gene Revisited 378
14.2 Messenger RNAs, Which Encode the Amino Acid
Sequences of Proteins, Are Modified after
Transcription in Eukaryotes 379
The Structure of Messenger RNA 380
Pre-mRNA Processing 380
The Addition of the 5′ Cap 381
The Addition of the Poly(A) Tail 381
RNA Splicing 382
Alternative Processing Pathways 385
RNA Editing 387
Connecting Concepts: Eukaryotic Gene Structure
and Pre-mRNA Processing 388
14.3 Transfer RNAs, Which Attach to Amino Acids,
Are Modified after Transcription in Bacterial
and Eukaryotic Cells 389
The Structure of Transfer RNA 390
Transfer RNA Gene Structure
and Processing 391
14.4 Ribosomal RNA, a Component
of the Ribosome, Also Is Processed
after Transcription 392
The Structure of the Ribosome 392
Ribosomal RNA Gene Structure
and Processing 393
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Contents
14.5 Small RNA Molecules Participate in a Variety
of Functions 394
RNA Interference 394
Types of Small RNAs 395
Processing and Function of MicroRNAs 395
Chapter 15 The Genetic Code and
Translation 401
HUTTERITES, RIBOSOMES, AND BOWEN–CONRADI
SYNDROME 401
15.1 Many Genes Encode Proteins 402
The One Gene, One Enzyme Hypothesis 402
The Structure and Function of Proteins 405
15.2 The Genetic Code Determines How the
Nucleotide Sequence Specifies the Amino Acid
Sequence of a Protein 407
Breaking the Genetic Code 408
The Degeneracy of the Code 410
The Reading Frame and Initiation Codons 411
Termination Codons 412
The Universality of the Code 412
Connecting Concepts: Characteristics
of the Genetic Code 412
15.3 Amino Acids Are Assembled into a Protein
Through the Mechanism of Translation 412
The Binding of Amino Acids to Transfer RNAs 413
The Initiation of Translation 414
Elongation 416
Termination 417
Connecting Concepts: A Comparison of Bacterial and
Eukaryotic Translation 419
15.4 Additional Properties of RNA and Ribosomes
Affect Protein Synthesis 420
The Three-Dimensional Structure of the Ribosome 420
Polyribosomes 421
Messenger RNA Surveillance 421
The Posttranslational Modifications of Proteins 423
Translation and Antibiotics 423
Nonstandard Protein Synthesis 423
Chapter 16 Control of Gene Expression
in Prokaryotes 431
STRESS, SEX, AND GENE REGULATION
IN BACTERIA 431
16.1 The Regulation of Gene Expression Is Critical
for All Organisms 432
Genes and Regulatory Elements 433
Levels of Gene Regulation 433
DNA-Binding Proteins 434
16.2 Operons Control Transcription in Bacterial Cells 435
Operon Structure 435
Negative and Positive Control: Inducible and
Repressible Operons 436
The lac Operon of E. coli 438
lac Mutations 441
Positive Control and Catabolite Repression 445
The trp Operon of E. coli 446
16.3 Some Operons Regulate Transcription Through
Attenuation, the Premature Termination of
Transcription 448
Attenuation in the trp Operon of E. coli 448
Why Does Attenuation Take Place in the trp Operon? 451
16.4 RNA Molecules Control the Expression of Some
Bacterial Genes 451
Antisense RNA 451
Riboswitches 452
Riboswitches That Function As Ribozymes 453
Chapter 17 Control of Gene Expression
in Eukaryotes 459
HOW A PARASITE CHANGES ITS SPOTS 459
17.1 Eukaryotic Cells and Bacteria Have Many Features
of Gene Regulation in Common, but They Differ in
Several Important Ways 460
17.2 Changes in Chromatin Structure Affect
the Expression of Genes 460
DNase I Hypersensitivity 460
Histone Modification 461
Chromatin Remodeling 462
DNA Methylation 463
17.3 Epigenetic Effects Often Result from Alterations in
Chromatin Structure 463
Epigenetic Effects 463
Molecular Mechanisms of Epigenetic Changes 464
The Epigenome 464
17.4 The Initiation of Transcription Is Regulated by
Transcription Factors and Transcriptional
Regulator Proteins 465
Transcriptional Activators and Coactivators 466
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Contents
Transcriptional Repressors 467
Enhancers and Insulators 468
Regulation of Transcriptional Stalling and Elongation 468
Coordinated Gene Regulation 469
17.5 Some Genes Are Regulated by RNA Processing
and Degradation 470
Gene Regulation Through RNA Splicing 470
The Degradation of RNA 471
17.6 RNA Interference Is an Important Mechanism
of Gene Regulation 472
Small Interfering RNAs and MicroRNAs 472
Mechanisms of Gene Regulation by RNA Interference 473
The Control of Development by RNA Interference 474
17.7 Some Genes Are Regulated by Processes
That Affect Translation or by Modifications
of Proteins 474
Connecting Concepts: A Comparison of Bacterial and
Eukaryotic Gene Control 474
Chapter 18 Gene Mutations and
DNA Repair 481
A FLY WITHOUT A HEART 481
18.1 Mutations Are Inherited Alterations in the
DNA Sequence 482
The Importance of Mutations 482
Categories of Mutations 482
Types of Gene Mutations 483
Phenotypic Effects of Mutations 485
Suppressor Mutations 486
Mutation Rates 490
18.2 Mutations Are Potentially Caused by a Number
of Different Natural and Unnatural Factors 491
Spontaneous Replication Errors 491
Spontaneous Chemical Changes 493
Chemically Induced Mutations 494
Radiation 497
18.3 Mutations Are the Focus of Intense Study by
Geneticists 498
Detecting Mutations with the Ames Test 498
Radiation Exposure in Humans 498
18.4 A Number of Pathways Repair Changes in DNA 500
Mismatch Repair 501
Direct Repair 502
Base-Excision Repair 502
Nucleotide-Excision Repair 503
Connecting Concepts: The Basic Pathway of DNA
Repair 504
Repair of Double-Strand Breaks 504
Translesion DNA Polymerases 504
Genetic Diseases and Faulty DNA Repair 505
Chapter 19 Molecular Genetic Analysis
and Biotechnology 513
HELPING THE BLIND TO SEE 513
19.1 Techniques of Molecular Genetics Have
Revolutionized Biology 514
The Molecular Genetics Revolution 514
Working at the Molecular Level 514
19.2 Molecular Techniques Are Used to Isolate,
Recombine, and Amplify Genes 515
Cutting and Joining DNA Fragments 515
Viewing DNA Fragments 517
Locating DNA Fragments with Southern Blotting
and Probes 518
Cloning Genes 519
Amplifying DNA Fragments with the
Polymerase Chain Reaction 523
Application: The Genetic Engineering of Plants
with Pesticides 525
19.3 Molecular Techniques Can Be Used to Find
Genes of Interest 527
Gene Libraries 527
In Situ Hybridization 529
Positional Cloning 529
In Silico Gene Discovery 531
Application: Isolating the Gene
for Cystic Fibrosis 531
19.4 DNA Sequences Can Be Determined
and Analyzed 533
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms 533
DNA Sequencing 534
Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies 537
DNA Fingerprinting 538
Application: Identifying People Who Died in the Collapse
of the World Trade Center 540
19.5 Molecular Techniques Are Increasingly Used
to Analyze Gene Function 541
Forward and Reverse Genetics 541
Creating Random Mutations 541
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Site-Directed Mutagensis 541
Transgenic Animals 542
Knockout Mice 543
Silencing Genes with RNAi 545
Application: Using RNAi for the Treatment
of Human Disease 545
19.6 Biotechnology Harnesses the Power
of Molecular Genetics 547
Pharmaceutical Products 547
Specialized Bacteria 547
Agricultural Products 547
Genetic Testing 548
Gene Therapy 548
Chapter 20 Genomics and
Proteomics 557
DECODING THE WAGGLE DANCE: THE GENOME
OF THE HONEYBEE 557
20.1 Structural Genomics Determines the DNA
Sequences of Entire Genomes 558
Genetic Maps 558
Physical Maps 560
Sequencing an Entire Genome 561
The Human Genome Project 562
Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms 565
Copy-Number Variations 567
Expressed-Sequence Tags 567
Bioinformatics 567
Metagenomics 569
Synthetic Biology 570
20.2 Functional Genomics Determines the Function
of Genes by Using Genomic-Based
Approaches 570
Predicting Function from Sequence 570
Gene Expression and Microarrays 571
Gene Expression and Reporter Sequences 574
Genomewide Mutagenesis 574
20.3 Comparative Genomics Studies How
Genomes Evolve 575
Prokaryotic Genomes 575
Eukaryotic Genomes 577
Comparative Drosophila Genomics 580
The Human Genome 581
20.4 Proteomics Analyzes the Complete Set of Proteins
Found in a Cell 582
Determination of Cellular Proteins 582
Affinity Capture 584
Protein Microarrays 584
Structural Proteomics 584
Chapter 21 Organelle DNA 591
THE DONKEY: A WILD ASS OR A HALF ASS? 591
21.1 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Are Eukaryotic
Cytoplasmic Organelles 592
Mitochondrion and Chloroplast Structure 592
The Genetics of Organelle-Encoded Traits 593
The Endosymbiotic Theory 596
21.2 Mitochondrial DNA Varies Widely in Size
and Organization 597
The Gene Structure and Organization
of Mitochondrial DNA 597
Nonuniversal Codons in Mitochondrial DNA 599
The Replication, Transcription, and Translation
of Mitochondrial DNA 599
The Evolution of Mitochondrial DNA 600
Mitochondrial DNA Variation and Human History 601
21.3 Chloroplast DNA Exhibits Many Properties
of Eubacterial DNA 601
The Gene Structure and Organization
of Chloroplast DNA 602
The Replication, Transcription, and Translation
of Chloroplast DNA 603
The Evolution of Chloroplast DNA 603
Connecting Concepts: Genome Comparisons 604
21.4 Through Evolutionary Time, Genetic Information
Has Moved Between Nuclear, Mitochondrial,
and Chloroplast Genomes 605
21.5 Damage to Mitochondrial DNA Is Associated
with Aging 605
Chapter 22 Developmental Genetics and
Immunogenetics 611
HOW A CAVEFISH LOST ITS EYES 611
22.1 Development Takes Place Through Cell
Determination 612
Cloning Experiments on Plants 612
Cloning Experiments on Animals 613
22.2 Pattern Formation in Drosophila Serves As a Model
for the Genetic Control of Development 613
The Development of the Fruit Fly 613
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