computer systems- a programmer''s perspective

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CONTENTS
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3 Machine-Level Representation of C Programs 89
3.1 AHistoricalPerspective 90
3.2 ProgramEncodings 92
3.2.1 Machine-LevelCode 93
3.2.2 CodeExamples 94
3.2.3 A Note on Formatting 97
3.3 DataFormats 98
3.4 Accessing Information . . . 99
3.4.1 OperandSpecifiers 100
3.4.2 DataMovementInstructions 102
3.4.3 DataMovementExample 103
3.5 Arithmetic and Logical Operations . . . 105
3.5.1 LoadEffectiveAddress 106
3.5.2 UnaryandBinaryOperations 106
3.5.3 ShiftOperations 107
3.5.4 Discussion 108
3.5.5 Special Arithmetic Operations . 109
3.6 Control 110
3.6.1 Condition Codes . . 110
3.6.2 Accessing the Condition Codes 111
3.6.3 JumpInstructionsandtheirEncodings 114
3.6.4 TranslatingConditionalBranches 117
3.6.5 Loops . . . 119
3.6.6 SwitchStatements 128
3.7 Procedures 132
3.7.1 StackFrameStructure 132
3.7.2 Transferring Control 134
3.7.3 RegisterUsageConventions 135
3.7.4 ProcedureExample 137
3.7.5 RecursiveProcedures 140
3.8 Array Allocation and Access 142
3.8.1 BasicPrinciples 143
3.8.2 Pointer Arithmetic . 144
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CONTENTS
3.8.3 Arrays and Loops . . 145
3.8.4 NestedArrays 145
3.8.5 FixedSizeArrays 148
3.8.6 DynamicallyAllocatedArrays 150
3.9 HeterogeneousDataStructures 153
3.9.1 Structures 153
3.9.2 Unions 156
3.10Alignment 160
3.11 Putting it Together: Understanding Pointers . . . 162
3.12 Life in the Real World: Using the G
DB
Debugger 165
3.13 Out-of-Bounds Memory References and Buffer Overflow . . 167
3.14*Floating-PointCode 172
3.14.1 Floating-PointRegisters 172
3.14.2 Extended-Precision Arithmetic . 173
3.14.3 Stack Evaluation of Expressions 176
3.14.4 Floating-PointDataMovementandConversionOperations 179
3.14.5 Floating-Point Arithmetic Instructions . . 181
3.14.6 UsingFloatingPointinProcedures 183
3.14.7 TestingandComparingFloating-PointValues 184
3.15 *Embedding Assembly Code in C Programs . . . 186
3.15.1 Basic Inline Assembly 187
3.15.2 Extended Form of asm 189
3.16Summary 192
4 Processor Architecture 201
5 Optimizing Program Performance 203
5.1 Capabilities and Limitations of Optimizing Compilers 204
5.2 Expressing Program Performance . . . 207
5.3 ProgramExample 209
5.4 EliminatingLoopInefficiencies 212
5.5 ReducingProcedureCalls 216
5.6 EliminatingUnneededMemoryReferences 218
CONTENTS
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5.7 Understanding Modern Processors . . . 220
5.7.1 OverallOperation 221
5.7.2 FunctionalUnitPerformance 224
5.7.3 A Closer Look at Processor Operation . . 225
5.8 ReducingLoopOverhead 233
5.9 Converting to Pointer Code . 238
5.10EnhancingParallelism 241
5.10.1 Loop Splitting . . . 241
5.10.2 Register Spilling . . 245
5.10.3 LimitstoParallelism 247
5.11 Putting it Together: Summary of Results for Optimizing Combining Code 247
5.11.1 Floating-PointPerformanceAnomaly 248
5.11.2 ChangingPlatforms 249
5.12 Branch Prediction and Misprediction Penalties . . 249
5.13UnderstandingMemoryPerformance 252
5.13.1 LoadLatency 253
5.13.2 StoreLatency 255
5.14LifeintheRealWorld:PerformanceImprovementTechniques 260
5.15 Identifying and Eliminating Performance Bottlenecks 261
5.15.1 ProgramProfiling 261
5.15.2 UsingaProfilertoGuideOptimization 263
5.15.3 Amdahl’sLaw 266
5.16Summary 267
6 The Memory Hierarchy 275
6.1 Storage Technologies 276
6.1.1 Random-Access Memory 276
6.1.2 DiskStorage 285
6.1.3 Storage Technology Trends . . 293
6.2 Locality 295
6.2.1 Locality of References to Program Data . 295
6.2.2 Locality of Instruction Fetches . 297
6.2.3 Summary of Locality 297
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CONTENTS
6.3 TheMemoryHierarchy 298
6.3.1 CachingintheMemoryHierarchy 301
6.3.2 SummaryofMemoryHierarchyConcepts 303
6.4 CacheMemories 304
6.4.1 GenericCacheMemoryOrganization 305
6.4.2 Direct-MappedCaches 306
6.4.3 SetAssociativeCaches 313
6.4.4 FullyAssociativeCaches 315
6.4.5 Issues with Writes . 318
6.4.6 InstructionCachesandUnifiedCaches 319
6.4.7 PerformanceImpactofCacheParameters 320
6.5 Writing Cache-friendly Code 322
6.6 Putting it Together: The Impact of Caches on Program Performance . . 327
6.6.1 The Memory Mountain 327
6.6.2 Rearranging Loops to Increase Spatial Locality . . . 331
6.6.3 Using Blocking to Increase Temporal Locality . . . 335
6.7 Summary 338
II Running Programs on a System 347
7 Linking 349
7.1 CompilerDrivers 350
7.2 StaticLinking 351
7.3 ObjectFiles 352
7.4 RelocatableObjectFiles 353
7.5 SymbolsandSymbolTables 354
7.6 SymbolResolution 357
7.6.1 How Linkers Resolve Multiply-Defined Global Symbols 358
7.6.2 LinkingwithStaticLibraries 361
7.6.3 HowLinkersUseStaticLibrariestoResolveReferences 364
7.7 Relocation 365
7.7.1 Relocation Entries . 366
7.7.2 RelocatingSymbolReferences 367
CONTENTS
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7.8 ExecutableObjectFiles 371
7.9 LoadingExecutableObjectFiles 372
7.10DynamicLinkingwithSharedLibraries 374
7.11LoadingandLinkingSharedLibrariesfromApplications 376
7.12*Position-IndependentCode(PIC) 377
7.13ToolsforManipulatingObjectFiles 381
7.14Summary 382
8 Exceptional Control Flow 391
8.1 Exceptions 392
8.1.1 ExceptionHandling 393
8.1.2 Classes of Exceptions 394
8.1.3 Exceptions in Intel Processors . 397
8.2 Processes 398
8.2.1 LogicalControlFlow 398
8.2.2 PrivateAddressSpace 399
8.2.3 UserandKernelModes 400
8.2.4 ContextSwitches 401
8.3 SystemCallsandErrorHandling 402
8.4 Process Control . . 403
8.4.1 Obtaining Process ID’s 404
8.4.2 Creating and Terminating Processes . . . 404
8.4.3 Reaping Child Processes 409
8.4.4 Putting Processes to Sleep . . . 414
8.4.5 Loading and Running Programs 415
8.4.6 Using fork and execve toRunPrograms 418
8.5 Signals 419
8.5.1 SignalTerminology 423
8.5.2 SendingSignals 423
8.5.3 Receiving Signals . . 426
8.5.4 SignalHandlingIssues 429
8.5.5 PortableSignalHandling 434
8.6 NonlocalJumps 436
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CONTENTS
8.7 Tools for Manipulating Processes 441
8.8 Summary 441
9 Measuring Program Execution Time 449
9.1 TheFlowofTimeonaComputerSystem 450
9.1.1 Process Scheduling and Timer Interrupts 451
9.1.2 TimefromanApplicationProgram’sPerspective 452
9.2 Measuring Time by Interval Counting . 454
9.2.1 Operation 456
9.2.2 Reading the Process Timers . . 456
9.2.3 Accuracy of Process Timers . . 457
9.3 Cycle Counters . . 459
9.3.1 IA32 Cycle Counters 460
9.4 Measuring Program Execution Time with Cycle Counters . . 460
9.4.1 TheEffectsofContextSwitching 462
9.4.2 CachingandOtherEffects 463
9.4.3 The
Ã
-Best Measurement Scheme 467
9.5 Time-of-Day Measurements 476
9.6 Putting it Together: An Experimental Protocol . . 478
9.7 Looking into the Future . . . 480
9.8 Life in the Real World: An Implementation of the
Ã
-Best Measurement Scheme 480
9.9 Summary 481
10 Virtual Memory 485
10.1 Physical and Virtual Addressing 486
10.2 Address Spaces . . 487
10.3VMasaToolforCaching 488
10.3.1 DRAM Cache Organization . . 489
10.3.2 PageTables 489
10.3.3 PageHits 490
10.3.4 PageFaults 491
10.3.5 AllocatingPages 492
10.3.6 Locality to the Rescue Again . . 493
CONTENTS
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10.4VMasaToolforMemoryManagement 493
10.4.1 Simplifying Linking 494
10.4.2 Simplifying Sharing 494
10.4.3 Simplifying Memory Allocation 495
10.4.4 Simplifying Loading 495
10.5VMasaToolforMemoryProtection 496
10.6AddressTranslation 497
10.6.1 IntegratingCachesandVM 500
10.6.2 SpeedingupAddressTranslationwithaTLB 500
10.6.3 Multi-level Page Tables 501
10.6.4 Putting it Together: End-to-end Address Translation 504
10.7 Case Study: The Pentium/Linux Memory System 508
10.7.1 PentiumAddressTranslation 508
10.7.2 Linux Virtual Memory System . 513
10.8MemoryMapping 516
10.8.1 SharedObjectsRevisited 517
10.8.2 The fork FunctionRevisited 519
10.8.3 The execve FunctionRevisited 519
10.8.4 User-level Memory Mapping with the mmap Function 520
10.9DynamicMemoryAllocation 522
10.9.1 The malloc and free Functions 523
10.9.2 WhyDynamicMemoryAllocation? 524
10.9.3 AllocatorRequirementsandGoals 526
10.9.4 Fragmentation 528
10.9.5 ImplementationIssues 529
10.9.6 ImplicitFreeLists 529
10.9.7 PlacingAllocatedBlocks 531
10.9.8 Splitting Free Blocks 531
10.9.9 Getting Additional Heap Memory 532
10.9.10 Coalescing Free Blocks 532
10.9.11 Coalescing with Boundary Tags 533
10.9.12 Putting it Together: Implementing a Simple Allocator 535
10.9.13ExplicitFreeLists 543
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CONTENTS
10.9.14SegregatedFreeLists 544
10.10GarbageCollection 546
10.10.1GarbageCollectorBasics 547
10.10.2Mark&SweepGarbageCollectors 548
10.10.3ConservativeMark&SweepforCPrograms 550
10.11CommonMemory-relatedBugsinCPrograms 551
10.11.1DereferencingBadPointers 551
10.11.2 Reading Uninitialized Memory . 551
10.11.3AllowingStackBufferOverflows 552
10.11.4AssumingthatPointersandtheObjectstheyPointtoAretheSameSize 552
10.11.5MakingOff-by-oneErrors 553
10.11.6ReferencingaPointerInsteadoftheObjectitPointsto 553
10.11.7 Misunderstanding Pointer Arithmetic . . 554
10.11.8ReferencingNon-existentVariables 554
10.11.9ReferencingDatainFreeHeapBlocks 555
10.11.10Introducing Memory Leaks . . . 555
10.12Summary 556
III Interaction and Communication Between Programs 561
11 Concurrent Programming with Threads 563
11.1BasicThreadConcepts 563
11.2ThreadControl 566
11.2.1 CreatingThreads 567
11.2.2 TerminatingThreads 567
11.2.3 ReapingTerminatedThreads 568
11.2.4 DetachingThreads 568
11.3SharedVariablesinThreadedPrograms 570
11.3.1 ThreadsMemoryModel 570
11.3.2 MappingVariablestoMemory 570
11.3.3 SharedVariables 572
11.4 Synchronizing Threads with Semaphores 573
11.4.1 SequentialConsistency 573
CONTENTS
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11.4.2 ProgressGraphs 576
11.4.3 Protecting Shared Variables with Semaphores 579
11.4.4 Posix Semaphores . 580
11.4.5 Signaling With Semaphores . . 581
11.5 Synchronizing Threads with Mutex and Condition Variables 583
11.5.1 MutexVariables 583
11.5.2 Condition Variables . 586
11.5.3 Barrier Synchronization 587
11.5.4 Timeout Waiting . . 588
11.6Thread-safeandReentrantFunctions 592
11.6.1 ReentrantFunctions 593
11.6.2 Thread-safeLibraryFunctions 596
11.7OtherSynchronizationErrors 596
11.7.1 Races . . . 596
11.7.2 Deadlocks 599
11.8Summary 600
12 Network Programming 605
12.1Client-ServerProgrammingModel 605
12.2Networks 606
12.3TheGlobalIPInternet 611
12.3.1 IP Addresses 612
12.3.2 InternetDomainNames 614
12.3.3 InternetConnections 618
12.4UnixfileI/O 619
12.4.1 The read and write Functions 620
12.4.2 Robust File I/O With the readn and writen Functions. 621
12.4.3 Robust Input of Text Lines Using the readline Function 623
12.4.4 The stat Function 623
12.4.5 The dup2 Function 626
12.4.6 The close Function 627
12.4.7 OtherUnixI/OFunctions 628
12.4.8 UnixI/Ovs.StandardI/O 628
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CONTENTS
12.5TheSocketsInterface 629
12.5.1 SocketAddressStructures 629
12.5.2 The socket Function 631
12.5.3 The connect Function 631
12.5.4 The bind Function 633
12.5.5 The listen Function 633
12.5.6 The accept Function 635
12.5.7 ExampleEchoClientandServer 636
12.6ConcurrentServers 638
12.6.1 Concurrent Servers Based on Processes . 638
12.6.2 Concurrent Servers Based on Threads . . 640
12.7WebServers 646
12.7.1 WebBasics 647
12.7.2 WebContent 647
12.7.3 HTTPTransactions 648
12.7.4 ServingDynamicContent 651
12.8 Putting it Together: The T
INY
WebServer 652
12.9Summary 662
A Error handling 665
A.1 Introduction 665
A.2 ErrorhandlinginUnixsystems 666
A.3 Error-handlingwrappers 667
A.4 Thecsapp.hheaderfile 671
A.5 Thecsapp.csourcefile 675
B Solutions to Practice Problems 691
B.1 Intro 691
B.2 Representing and Manipulating Information . . . 691
B.3 Machine Level Representation of C Programs . . 700
B.4 Processor Architecture . . . 715
B.5 OptimizingProgramPerformance 715
B.6 TheMemoryHierarchy 717